1. Theory of Value:
What knowledge and skills are
worthwhile learning?
Augustine was born on November
13, 354. He was a pagan who studied many doctrines/faiths before
converting to Christianity. As a result, much of his educational
focus was on the interpretation of Scriptures and Christian beliefs.
Although he became a believer in Christian principles, his writings,
"Letters of Saint Augustine", strongly support that his ultimate
faith was based on the intense study of Scriptures and other
authors' writings on religious matters. Augustine was a strong
advocate of critical thinking skills that was referred to as
"skeptical philosophy" (Kirwan, C. 1999, p.16). In his letters, he
critically "tore apart" analysis of Scriptures by others that were
not fully supported by logical thinking. "The theology and
philosophy of the medieval schoolmen and the creator of medieval
universities were rooted in Augustinian ideas of the relation
between faith and reason" (Chadwick, 1986, p. 1).
Language translation skills
were important because books and their knowledge were not accessible
unless they could be translated. "I cannot marvel enough that
anything should still be in Hebrew texts which has escaped so many
learned scholars" (Leinenweber, 1992, p. 41). "They disturb me more
who have made the translations more recently, and who have said to
have a better grasp of the style and syntax of Hebrew words and
phrases" (Leinenweber, 1992, p. 41).
Augustine was a teacher of
rhetoric and a great admirer of Cicero, acknowledging him as "the
greatest master of Roman eloquence." (Leinenweber, 1992, p. 222).
Because written works were still rather limited during this time,
spoken communication of knowledge was very important.
Augustine was a strong
advocate that the written and spoken word were powerful skills worth
learning. He enjoyed "playful debates" with students and friends.
"This kind of intellectual gamesmanship is said to have been very
popular among African Christians" (Leinenweber, 1992, p. 11).
However, he strongly critiqued other learned writers or speakers.
Although Augustine is known
for philosophy rather than mathematics, The Greatness of the Soul
makes heavy use of geometry (see Colleran, 1964).
What are the goals of
education?
Augustine had a unique and
powerful goal of education. He equated education with happiness.
"What if even the ignorant can lead a happy life? That's hardly
possible. If it were so, ignorance would have no importance, instead
of being the only true unhappiness" (Leinenweber, 1992, p. 18).
Also, he stated, "the soul grows by learning" (Colleran, 1964,
p.53).
2. Theory of Knowledge:
What is knowledge?
Augustine would view knowledge
as a product of a learning process of gathering information (reading
or listening to learned speakers), referred to as "reasoning", and
examining this information on a given subject (referred to as
"reason") to develop "knowledge" (form conclusions or views on a
subject.) However, after considerable thought, he determined that
some knowledge, that is inborn, must be present to start the
"reasoning/reason" process.
"And so, when the sight of the
mind which we call reason, is directed upon some object and sees it,
that is called knowledge; but when the mind does not see, though it
focuses its sight, that is called not-knowing or ignorance" (Colleran,
1964, p. 79). Aug: "Now, then, considering that knowledge and reason
are two distinct realities, do we attain to reason by knowledge, or
to knowledge by reason?" Ev: "The two of them, to my way of
thinking, are so interconnected that it is by each that the other
can be attained. For we could not attain to reason itself, unless we
knew that we should attain to it. Therefore, knowledge came first,
so that by it we might come to use reason." Aug: What? Do we
actually arrive at knowledge, which you say comes first, without
reason?' Ev: "Never would I say that; for that would be utterly
unreasonable." (Colleran, 1964, p. 76) Aug: "By what means, then?"
Ev: "Without any means; knowledge, you know, is inborn in us." (Colleran,
1964, p. 76)
"But where there is awareness
of something there you certainly have knowledge." (Colleran, 1964,
p. 75)
"Later in book 1 we find the
suggestion that wisdom is the knowledge of those human and divine
things that pertain to a happy life (Kirwan, 1999, p. 20).
"The purpose of knowledge was
always the attainment of happiness by a closer union with God" (Colleran,
1964, p. 8)
How is it different from
belief?
Referring to the specific
details of an event, Augustine writes: "(what) actually happened at
that time and in the manner described, is something that I admit I
believe rather than know. And here we have a difference of which
those we believe were not aware; for the Prophet says: Unless you
believe, you shall not understand. He certainly could not have said
that if he thought there is no difference between the two.
Therefore, what I understand, I also believe. But I am not for that
reason unaware of how useful it is to believe also many things which
I do not know; and in this usefulness I also include the account of
the three boys. Hence, although the majority of things cannot be
known by me, yet I know how very useful it is to believe them" (Colleran,
1964, p. 177).
Augustine view is a that a
belief is different from knowledge in that a belief is not attained
"by profound reasoning."
What is a mistake?
A mistake is an unintentional
error (without malice) that occurs due to insufficient effort or
forethought. " I admit that I endeavor to be one of those authors
who write as they make progress and make progress by their writing.
Therefore, if I set down something with insufficient forethought or
knowledge, it deserves to be condemned, not only by those who see
it, but even by me" (Leinenweber, 1992, p.148).
A lie?
"There are two things this
speaker may do: (i) say what he thinks is true with the purpose of
inducing belief in what he thinks is false, or (ii) say what he
thinks is false with the purpose of inducing belief in what he
thinks is true. The former purpose is deception: and Augustine shows
that the question which of these two performances is a lie turns on
two candidate conditions for lying: (a) an utterance with the will
to utter a falsehood or (b) an utterance with the will to deceive" (Kirwan,
C. 1999, p.197). Augustine states "it is possible for anyone to
avoid lying if he avoids both (i) and (ii), and chooses instead to
say what he thinks is true without the purpose of inducing belief in
anything other than what he says" (Kirwan, C. 1999, p.198).
3. Theory of Human Nature:
What is human being? How does
it differ from other species?
A human being differs from
other species since it has a soul. Augustine believed strongly in
this premise. He wrote an entire book, The Greatness of the Soul, on
this subject. "The gospel shows this clearly in the scene where
Jesus allowed the demons to use swine as they wanted. Can we rightly
say this of a human? A human is an animal, certainly, one with
reason even though mortal. A human possesses a rational soul in its
members, and this soul is punished by these great afflictions" (Leinenweber,
1992, p. 18). {Referring to afflictions as a result of evil.} "A
human person is a combination of soul and body, and the person of
Christ is a combination of God and man: when God's Word was combined
with a soul having a body, he took to himself both the soul and the
body" (Leinenweber, 1992, p. 127).
What are the limits of human
potential?
"Augustine preached that
people could not change their sinful ways unless helped by the grace
of God. He believed that God chooses only certain individuals to
receive His grace" (Burrell, 2001, p. 888).
4. Theory of Learning:
Augustine would view learning
as a process that results in either knowledge or ignorance. Learning
has several components. First, the use of senses, such as the eyes
to read a book or ears to hear a speaker. Second, the use of the
mind, which uses "reason" and "reasoning."
Ev: "Because you stated a
little while ago that I must agree with you that we have knowledge
before reason, because reason proceeds from a basis in something
known is leading us to something unknown. But now we have discovered
that when this occurs, the operation should not be called reason:
for a sound mind is not always performing that operation, although
it always has reason. With rather good cause, though, the operation
is called "reasoning." Thus, "reason" is in a sense mental sight,
while "reasoning" would be reason's search, that is, the moving of
that sight over the objects that are to be seen. Hence, the function
of the latter is to search, that of the former, to see. And so, when
the sight of the mind which we call reason, is directed upon some
object and sees it, that is called knowledge; but when the mind does
not see, though it focuses its sight, that is called not-knowing or
ignorance" (Colleran, 1964, p. 79).
How are skills and knowledge
acquired?
Skills and knowledge are
acquired through the study of written and spoken words, and the
interaction with learned people. Augustine strongly believed in the
interaction with learned people to obtain skills and knowledge. "To
Vilusianus, he (Augustine) writes as to an intelligent man who will
appreciate the arguments of an educated mind; to Discocous, a
student, the aging bishop sputters out his complaints and then
answers the questions asked of him" (Leinenweber, 1992, p. 11).
"Correspondence with Jerome, as it show us Augustine engaged with
the most learned man of his time in a duel in which he stood to lose
much more than he could gain" (Leinenweber, 1992, p. 11)
This interaction with learned
people also included formal schooling. It would appear that
Augustine would view schooling as an important method of acquiring
skills and knowledge (see "What will the curriculum be?").
5. Theory of Transmission:
There is conflict between
Augustine's writings and his actions with respect to this question.
In his work, The Teacher, Augustine concludes: "Men cannot teach one
another. God is the only teacher of men" (Colleran, 1964, p.117).
Despite that conclusion, he accepts that man's words are a mechanism
for God to teach.
Aug: "What do you think we
purpose to do when we speak?" Adeodatus: "As far as occurs to me at
this moment, we intend either to teach or to learn." … Aug:"So you
see that the purpose in speaking is solely to teach" (Colleran,
1964, p.129).
By what methods?
Augustine was a teacher of
rhetoric and recognized that formal schooling was an important
method of teaching, especially, because books were limited. He
seemed most interested in the study of the written word but was
frustrated by the problem of translating writings from different
languages. "It is my request, therefore, in the company with all the
members of the churches of Africa who are devoted to learning, that
you not refuse to expend care and effort to translate the writings
of those who commented so well in Greek on our holy scriptures" (Leinenweber,
1992, p. 41).
What will the curriculum be?
"Augustine records with some
astonishment that there were contemporary Christians in Africa who
read no book other than the Bible, and who conversed in the often
strange translationese of the old Latin Bible; an anticipation of
Quaker English. He was sure that wider studies were necessary. A
biblical scholar needed to know some history, geography, natural
science, mathematics, logic and rhetoric (how to write and speak
clearly and appropriately)" (Chadwick, 1986, p. 35).
6. Theory of Society:
"Augustine has left us no
blueprint for human society on earth, the 'terrena civitas'. We
cannot suppose this an accident" (Kirwan, 1999, p.218). "If we
examine St. Augustine's own teaching more closely, we see why the
notion of a temporal human society, endowed with its own unity and
including the whole human race could not present itself to his mind"
(Walsh et al, 1958, p. 32). Although The City of God focused on
moral, philosophical and religious aspects of the human race over
time, it did provide some insights into Augustine's view of temporal
society. "Some passages in the City of God give the impression of
wholly discarding the Roman Empire and all political institutions as
power-hungry organizations for wicked domination and oppression by
the powerful" (Chadwick, 1986, p.99). "The mature Augustine of the
City of God no longer used such optimistic words about political
structures" (Chadwick, 1986, p.100). What institutions are involved
in the educational process?
The family was critical to the
educational process. Personally, Augustine spent considerable time
educating his son. "The Teacher was written as a memorial to his
clever natural son Adeodatus, in conversation with whom the ideas
were worked out" (Chadwick, 1986, p.47). Speaking about his son,
Augustine states: "When he was only fifteen years of age, he already
excelled many grave and learned men in talent" (Colleran, 1964,
p.115).
Because of the importance of
religion, Augustine recognized the Church as a potentially important
teacher. However, he was "a combative critic of Catholic orthodoxy
and conscious of his own intellectual superiority to members of the
Church, whose bishops he held in contempt for their lack of
education and critical inquiry" (Chadwick, 1986, p. 14).
Although universities were
mentioned in my research, no strong opinions by Augustine on their
role were found.
7. Theory of Opportunity
Who is to be educated?
"His (Augustine's) own family
background was not one of high culture. That culture he acquired was
through education" (Chadwick, 1986, p.1). Augustine clearly viewed
education as a passion and a process of opening up the mind to ideas
and critical thinking ("skeptical philosophy"). In that sense, all
people, regardless of class should be given the opportunity to be
educated. "He (Augustine) was certainly no elitist, not one to
reserve his time and energy for those he considered worthy of a
reply. It has been remarked of Augustine's preaching that he never
held back because some idea might go over the heads of some of his
flock" (Leinenweber, 1992, p. 13).
Although my research did not
clearly determine the status of women with respect to education, his
letters "To the Nuns of Hippo" and to his sisters indicates that he
treats women as equals to men in terms of learned discussions about
Christian works.
Who is to be schooled?
Although Augustine's personal
experience with formal schooling at an early age was not pleasant,
{"Augustine later looked back on his school days as a miserable
experience"} (Chadwick, 1986, p.7), he saw value in formal schooling
(see "What should the curriculum be?") My research did not uncover
any specific writings by Augustine on this subject. However, nearly
all comments and findings on "Who is be educated?" would appear to
be applicable.
8. Theory of Consensus
Why do people disagree?
People disagree because of
many of the issues raised in earlier sections. This includes:
intellectual differences (i.e., more experience such as a teacher to
a student), mistakes and lies. Also, mistakes, not in thought, but
in language translation caused disagreements. However, many
disagreements were more deeply seeped in authority, especially in
religious matters. "Augustine began his anti-Doratist campaign with
tact and caution. His first letters to Doratist prelates are
courteous and emphasize his faith in good will. He assumed that
reasonable men could settle this controversy peaceably. But
Augustine quickly discovered that reason and good manners would get
him nowhere" (O'Donnell, date unknown, p. 6 of 8).
How is consensus achieved?
As shown in his letters (see
Leinenweber, 1992), consensus can be reached on an intellectual
level if a controversy is discussed honestly. Augustine respected
the views of learned individuals who legitimately practiced
"skeptical philosophy." However, he was well aware that power
struggles, such as occurred in Church and government, were resolved
based on their position of authority rather than on their
intellectual merits.
Whose opinion takes
precedence?
"Nevertheless, the problem of
authority was prominent in the controversies between the Catholics
and Manichees" (Chadwick, 1986, p.27). "Without reason how can one
discriminate to competing claims of authority? How can one
distinguish between authentically divine authority and that of
inferior spirits venerated by pagans who claim to predict the future
by divination and soothsaying?" (Chadwick, 1986, p.28).
CITATIONS
Kirwan, C. (1999).
Augustine. London: Routledge
Chadwick, H. (1986).
Augustine. Oxford: Oxford University Press
Leinenweber, J. (1992).
Letters of Saint Augustine. Tarrytown:
Triumph Books
Colleran, J. (1964). St. Augustine The Greatness of the Soul and The
Teacher. Westminster: The Newman Press
Burrell, D. (2001).
The World Book Encyclopedia, vol.1. Chicago:
World Book, Inc. O'Donnell, J. (date unknown). Augustine the
African. Retrieved on 09/29/01 from http;//ccat.sas.upenn.edu/jod/twayne/aug1.html
Walsh, G., Zema, D., Monahan, G. & Honan, D. (1953).
Saint Augustine
City of God. Garden City: Image Books
Retrieved: http://www.newfoundations.com/GALLERY/Augustine.html
